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There are studies which indicate influences of
camping experience on youth development (Chenery,
1981; Cowin, 1989; Search Institute, 1996). The
purpose of this study is to synthesize as much
of the prior research as possible into a practical
form, using the random effects methodology of
meta-analysis. General agreement about the most
effective way to measure the self, demonstrated
herein, is through an individual's own evaluation
of self-esteem or self-concept. This meta-analysis
will allow organized camping professionals to
articulate an influence that is made on youth
development needs as a result of participation
in an organized camping experience.
The review of literature for this study included
the fields of child development, education, social
psychology, organized camping, and meta-analysis.
This broad review gives perspective and allows
for definition of the research question. The chapter
reviews the related literature that will define
development and adolescence, explore the measurement
of development and the self, examine development
and social needs, recognize the development needs
of adolescents and children, and address the relevance
of organized camping as an effective avenue to
meet the identified needs. In conclusion, a summary
will be used to highlight the relevant points
from the review and introduce the study's Methodology
in Chapter 3.
Defining
Development and Adolescence
The 1991 report of the National
Commission on Children (in Whiting, 1993) defined
development as "...more than physical growth.
It is the process through which children mature
socially, emotionally, intellectually, and morally:
they learn right from wrong and they acquire critical
knowledge and skills" (p. 8). Scholars generally
agree with this definition, while at the same
time recognizing many different theories of how
development occurs (Breckenridge & Vincent,
1965; Hughes, Noppe & Noppe, 1996; Selman
& Yando, 1980; Sroufe, Egeland & Kreutzer,
1990). The important points recognized by these
authors are, that differentiation must be made
between change and development, often called growth,
and that growth is an individual process and cannot
be confined to specific time lines.
Stages of development can, however, be recognized
through approximate age ranges and through recognizable
physical and emotional growth phases (Breckenridge
& Vincent, 1965). Hall (1904, in Ellis &
Davis, 1982; Meece, 1997) is recognized as the
first to describe the development stage known
as adolescence. Hall defined adolescence as a
stage that lasts from the onset of puberty until
sometime in the mid-twenties. Recognition of differing
rates of growth which begin at different times
for each individual (Breckenridge & Vincent,
1965; Cole & Cole, 1996; Dorman, 1985; Hughes,
Noppe & Noppe, 1996; Selman & Yando, 1980)
supports the notion that the adolescent development
stage is chronologically broad. Adolescence represents
both the physical change of puberty and cognitive
change. Cognitive change occurs in the form of
the adolescent recognizing the difference between
the possible and the real, or the understanding
of self-identity versus role expectations (Ellis
& Davis, 1982; Hughes, Noppe & Noppe,
1996; Meece, 1997).
Historically, it is important to note that the
concept of the child and development stages has
evolved significantly in the last 150 years. In
colonial times children were viewed as "miniature
adults", and went to work around age 7. By
the time these children started puberty they knew
how to farm and raise children. Children of wealthier
parents had the equivalent of a college education
by the age of 18 (Meece, 1997). This evolution
has important social and research implications.
Measuring
Development
The evolution of research has facilitated
the ability to measure child and adolescent development.
Scholars agree that the most effective way to
do this is rooted in the perspective of the individual;
using the tools of self-concept and self-esteem
(Breckenridge & Vincent, 1965; Cole &
Cole, 1996; Curry & Johnson, 1990; Ellis &
Davis, 1982; Hughes, Noppe & Noppe, 1996).
The constructs of self-esteem and self-concept
are both general and frequently interchanged (Baumeister,
1998; Harter, 1990). Broadly, self-concept is
defined as what we know or perceive about ourselves,
while self-esteem is an evaluation of that concept
(Chenery, 1981; Cole & Cole, 1996; Curry &
Johnson, 1990; Ellis & Davis, 1982; Hughes,
Noppe & Noppe, 1996; Meece, 1997).
The original definition and use of the self-concept
and self-esteem brought criticism for vagary and
ambiguity (Curry & Johnson, 1990; Ellis &
Davis, 1982). Measures have since evolved so that
more recent evaluations of self are more multi-dimensional:
how the self is experienced, not just the reflection
of how others see the self (Baumeister, 1998;
Curry & Johnson, 1990; Ellis & Davis,
1982). Researchers agree that evaluation of the
self should be made from a global perspective,
one which recognizes the complexity and the multiple
constructs that interact to establish the self
(Baumeister, 1998; Harter, 1990; Scales &
Leffert, 1999). A partial list of the multiple
constructs that compose the self, representing
the constructs included in this study, can be
found in Appendix A.
In The Handbook of Social Psychology,
(Baumeister, 1998), summarizes the "three
roots of self-hood" as being reflexive consciousness,
interpersonal aspect, and executive function.
Reflexive consciousness is the "turning
of consciousness back toward it's source and gradually
constructing a concept of oneself" (p. 680).
Self-esteem and self-concept are aspects of the
reflexive consciousness of the constructed self.
Interpersonal aspect reflects the fact
that the self is not just a consequence of social
relationship, but an active participant that internalizes
and reacts to what is experienced from interpersonal
interactions (Baumeister, 1998). The executive
function of the self is a "mechanism
that initiates, alters, and directs behavior"
(p. 724). Efficacy is an example of an executive
function construct. At present the cognitive aspects
of self are best understood, and the relationships
between cognitions and interpersonal or executive
roots of self are just beginning to be understood
(Baumeister, 1998).
The influence of Puritanism on Americans has
created the cultural notion that the individual
has the right and moral duty to achieve an understanding
of self. This value of self has added new dimensions
to the way people understand the social and cultural
interactions in their lives (Baumeister, 1998).
Furthermore, the modern Western individual is
faced with the negotiation and renegotiation of
self much more often than in the past. This change
means that the individual of today is faced with
a wide spectrum of approaches to defining the
self, a freedom that brings difficulty in choices
and a need to better understand one's personal
traits in order to make appropriate life choices
(Baumeister, 1998).
The subsequent renegotiations of self provide
a development challenge to the individual. The
challenge is greatest for adolescence, a stage
of development that ends with the formation of
the adult identity (Erikson, 1968, in Baumeister,
1998). These changes and challenges affecting
self are coupled with social issues that create
unique cultural influences on the self.
The
Self and Development
The elevation of self perceptions
is culturally desirable. Interest in self is most
likely driven by the culture's optimism that understanding
the self will bring answers to life's questions
and solutions to problems (Baumeister, 1998).
A more practical perspective is that a positive
perception of self is important to adaptive functioning
and everyday happiness (Baumeister, 1998; Harter,
1990; Scales & Leffert, 1999).
Self-esteem is considered important to healthy
development (Leffert, et.al, 1996). A high level
of self-concept has been associated with positive
development outcomes (Baumeister, 1998; Scales
& Leffert, 1999). A review of studies by the
Search Institute (Scales & Leffert, 1999)
show these outcomes to include increases in:
-
positive emotional tone and relationships
with peers and parents,
-
satisfaction with life,
-
academic achievement,
-
responsible attitude toward sexual behaviors,
and
-
positive adjustment during the junior high
school transition.
A decrease in susceptibility to peer pressure
was also recognized as a positive development
outcome. This last outcome is related to the protective
role that researchers have identified for a positive
self image. The protective role insulates the
individual from adopting negative behaviors and
allows one to maintain stability of personal identity
in the face of changes in the social and cultural
environment (Baumeister, 1998; Scales & Leffert,
1999).
Self-concept and self-esteem are generally thought
to be relatively stable, particularly in the short
term (Baumeister, 1998; Scales & Leffert,
1999). Changes in self are generally positive
over the period of late childhood and adolescence
(Baumeister, 1998; Harter, 1990; Scales &
Leffert, 1999). Several bodies of research indicate
a minor decrease in self image across adolescents
in the 6th to 10th grades (Scales & Leffert,
1999), the period of transition between social
and cultural environments in junior and senior
high school.
Development
and Social Needs
Historically, the implications
of the evolution of the concept of child are related
to social need. The "value" of children
has decreased (Hughes, Noppe & Noppe, 1996).
Previously important economic or familial contributions
by the child have been replaced with the need
to support the child as a non-contributing member
of the household. This evolution, driven by economic,
education and socialization issues, also reflects
the difference in the definition of the child
across societies (Curry & Johnson, 1990; Hughes,
Noppe & Noppe, 1996; Meece, 1997). Other societal
changes are also effecting early-adolescent development.
These changes begin in the home and extend to
the community. First men, and more recently women,
left the home for the entire day in order to go
to work. Few homes have more than two generations
living in them. Now, communities are more transient
and therefore less stable, with fewer people willing
to share in the task of raising the young. Additionally,
mass formalized schooling was initiated less than
100 years ago and has grown into the primary institution
for the development and care of the young. Day
care and other organizations, some with little
sense of ownership, share the burden of care and
development with the schools (Carnegie Council,
1993; Meece, 1997; Whiting, 1993).
Meanwhile, society is becoming less pleased with
the results of student testing and more concerned
with what lessons children are learning when not
in school Trotter (1990) summarizes the state
of education and social problems related to it.
The realities of the education system in 1990
were declining performance at all levels. Furthermore,
there are social problems related to a lack of
parental supervision after school and during summer
vacations. Compounding this issue, extracurricular
activities designed to meet societal needs are
being cut due to budget considerations (Carnegie
Council, 1993; Whiting, 1993). In 1999 the trend
of declining performance seems to have been reversed
(Clinton, 1999). However, it has become more evident
that the education system has been burdened with
a development task for which it was not designed.
The state of youth development in 1999, according
to Senator Henry Hyde (1999), is in a state of
crisis. Summarizing these influences on the state
of education indicates the result as being reduced
effectiveness in both education and development.
Today, schools struggle to meet educational needs
by looking at options of year-round schooling,
or restructuring class schedules, hoping to find
a solution to financial and academic performance
problems (Marsh, 1998). According to Whiting (1993),
even if these changes were combined with significant
curriculum reform, "...[schools] alone cannot
do what is needed to cope effectively with the
changes in the family and community and the emergence
of a more competitive world economy" (p.
18).
Adolescent
Development Needs
In the face of these social and
educational issues it is important to examine
what are considered to be the development needs
of youth. Seven (Dorman, 1985) development needs
of early-adolescents (aged 10 to 15) are defined:
1) positive social interactions with peers and
adults; 2) structure and clear limits; 3) physical
activity; 4) creative expression; 5) competence
and achievement; 6) meaningful participation in
home, school, and community; and 7) self definition.
These needs, when taken together, equate to the
two needs that are considered to be the most pertinent
needs at this juncture in U.S. History: relationships
between children and adults, and how children
fill their time, (Whiting, 1993). These needs,
combined with Whiting's previous observation about
schooling not being able to fully address both
development and education needs, indicate that
the responsibility for attaining these goals must
be shared by the community.
Research conducted by the Search Institute (1996)
identified 40 internal and external development
assets that are required for adolescents (aged
12 to 18) to develop in a healthy, well rounded
fashion. Search institute is working to validate
the asset framework for children (aged 6 to 11),
the progress is promising (Leffert, Benson & Roehlkepartain,
1997). The term development assets is used
to describe experiential outcomes of the youth's
environment and socialization. The external
development asset categories include support
factors, empowerment conditions, clear boundaries
and expectations, and constructive use of time.
The internal assets are a function of the external
assets. Internal development assets are
categorized as a commitment to learning, positive
values, social competencies, and a positive identity.
Both types of assets, combined with modern social
trends and the defined development needs, lend
further recognition to the need to involve the
community in the effort to provide for youth development
needs.
Turner-Smith (1990) examined the benefits of
adding informal learning experiences to the formal
experience of schooling. The examination of the
characteristics and known benefits of informal
learning concludes that healthy development in
young people occurs when they are exposed to both
formal and informal learning experiences. These
conclusions help to identify the character of
organizations in the community that can team-up
with schools in helping to meet the development
needs of a whole child.
The extent to which an individual successfully
manages the challenges associated with development
phases is related to current environmental circumstances
(Sroufe, Egeland, & Kreutzer, 1990; Search
Institute, 1999). Yet, "...in the twentieth century
adolescence has become a period of indecision,
uncertainty, experimentation, and identity crisis"
(Baumeister, 1998, p. 726). According to Zimmerman
(1997, p. 137, in Scales & Leffert, 1999)
"efforts either to prevent and stabilize decreasing
self-esteem or to build self-esteem may have vital
effects on other outcomes of youth" (p. 210).
A supportive environment provides a better chance
for the development of positive self constructs
(Scales & Leffert, 1999).
Organized
Camping's Ability to Address Developmental Needs
Scales (in ACA, 1997a) points to
camping's ability to let children discover and
explore their interests, values, and talents.
"Kids who have had these kinds of [camp]
experiences end up being healthier and have fewer
problems that concern us all" (p. 22). Furthermore,
Johnson (in ACA, 1997a) states that "At camp,
children learn to problem-solve, make social adjustments
to new and different people, learn responsibility,
and gain new skills to increase their self-esteem"
(p. 22).
The American Camping Association (ACA, 1997)
defines camping as "a sustained experience
which provides a creative, educational opportunity
in group living in the outdoors. It utilizes trained
leadership and the resources of the natural surroundings
to contribute to each camper's mental, physical,
social and spiritual growth" (p. 1). Organized
camping has been called on to address development
issues and broader social concerns since it's
inception in 1867 (Breckenridge & Vincent,
1965; Eells, 1986; Gibson, 1936).
The visionary Reynold Carlson (1975) pointed
to camping as the best tool to meet some of the
social needs of youth:
...the camping experience stands out as
a means of bringing youth into harmony with
their heritage of the outdoors, of establishing
roots for young people who feel increasingly
rootless, and for giving perspective beyond
that obtained in the narrow confines
of a crowded society. (p. 6)
Today, ACA (1997b) survey results also indicate
that camp directors and parents recognize camp's
four most important contributions to child development,
in rank order, as being: self-confidence and self-esteem;
getting along with others/teamwork; an appreciation
for the outdoors/environmental concerns; and recreational
skills. This recognition demonstrates clear, intuitive
understanding by practitioners and parents of
the contribution that camping is perceived to
make to the development of youth.
According to Scales & Leffert (1999), youth
need social support, the means and the resources
to meet the challenges of development phases.
Furthermore, development of a positive individual
identity will occur if the abilities to effect
outcome, feel good about one's self, and have
a sense of investment are developed. Leffert,
et al. (1996), cite that numerous studies have
demonstrated the importance to youth of having
a relationship with a supportive adult, who can
be a staff member in a youth development agency.
Both of these observations support the notion
that the components for the positive development
of self constructs can be found in the camping
environment.
The strength of this support for camping's contribution
to youth development is either based on extrapolation
from like circumstances in similar environments,
intuition from empirical observation, or on individual
studies from which the data has not been synthesized
to provide a conclusive summary. In fact, there
is little documentation about the values of a
camping experience (Eells, 1986; Leffert, et.
al, 1996). This study was conceived in order to
synthesize the existing research and to establish
the validity of the intuited knowledge about the
influences of a camping experience on the development
of self constructs.
Methodology
The technique of meta-analysis
has evolved to the level that allows the method
to be utilized to synthesize findings from a broad
population of studies (Cooper & Hedges, 1994;
Glass, 1976; Hedges & Olkin, 1985; Hunt, 1997;
Wachter & Straf, 1990). These studies can
include different methodologies and treatments
that are equated through the calculation of the
effect size for each study (Glass, 1976). The
random effects methodology of this meta-analysis
provided for the inclusion of experimental, quasi-experimental,
and pre-experimental studies in an aggregated
mean comparison of effect size. There is precedent
for the evaluation of pre-experimental studies
being included in an effect size analysis.
Pre-experimental studies, those studies conducted
with out a control group and without the assumption
for statistical equivalence of the sample being
met, were included through the calculation of
effect size based on a comparison of pre and post
treatment observations (Andrews, Guitar, &
Howie, 1980; Cooper & Hedges, 1994). Quasi-experimental
studies, those studies conducted with no control
group or without meeting the requirements for
statistical equivalence of the sample, were evaluated
for compatibility of research method and statistical
relevance and included in the same fashion as
the pre-experimental studies, discussed above
(Cooper & Hedges, 1994). Statistical equivalence
is the process of establishing the equivalence
of the groups being compared so that differences
in their performance can not be attributed to
differences in the groups (McMillan & Schumacher,
1997). These quasi-experimental studies were analyzed
and compared to the synthesis of the experimental
and pre-experimental studies, providing for a
comparative population. This comparison was used
to corroborate generalizability and external validity
of the findings, and are discussed in Chapters
3 and 4.
According to scholars (Cooper & Hedges, 1994;
Hedges & Olkin, 1985; Hunt, 1997; Hunter,
Schmidt & Jackson, 1982; Light & Pilmer,
1984; Wachter & Straf, 1990), rigorous attention
to research method and proper statistical analysis
procedures were used as the most effective methods
of controlling for bias, providing reliable and
valid information. The implications of using a
random effects model of meta-analysis are that
the method provides for a rigorous and complete
analysis of the problem being studied. A clearer,
overall perspective on the present state of knowledge
on the research question is gained (Cooper &
Hedges, 1994; Hedges & Olkin, 1985; Hunt,
1997; Light & Pilmer, 1984; Wachter & Straf,
1990).
The methodology for this research was guided
primarily by the existing literature on meta-analysis
in the social and medical sciences. Specifically,
The Handbook of Research Synthesis (Cooper &
Hedges, 1994), was used as the foundation for
the methodology, discussed in the next chapter.
At the time of this study there were no completed
meta-analysis in the field of camping that could
be used as precedent for questions regarding technique.
Furthermore, the prior controversy surrounding
the legitimacy of meta-analysis as a research
tool suggested that the relative newness of the
technique required the use of the latest critiques
and handbooks to gain insight into the fine points
of using meta-analysis as a valid research tool
(Cooper & Hedges, 1994; Hedges & Olkin,
1985; Hunt, 1997; Light & Pilmer, 1984; Wachter
& Straf, 1990).
Summary
Adolescent development is the physical
and cognitive growth of those in the approximate
age range from ten to twenty-two years old. Childhood
is the development phase preceding adolescence,
ranging in age from six to ten years. Self-concept
and self-esteem are deemed to be the best tools
for assessing this growth. The self is best measured
using a multi-dimensional perspective. Understanding
of one's self is considered desirable by society.
Research has identified multiple benefits from
youth having a positive self image. The development
needs of youth are complicated by evolving societal
factors. On top of this, the school, as an institution,
is not capable of meeting both the educational
and development needs of youth. Therefore, community
involvement through informal education is required
in order for these development needs to be effectively
addressed.
Organized camping can provide an avenue to effectively
respond to these development needs. A means to
identifying this relationship is through a meta-analysis
of the research conducted to date on the influence
of the organized camping experience on the self
constructs of youth. To that end, this study explores
the research question through the use of a random
effects meta-analysis of the primary experimental,
quasi-experimental, and pre-experimental studies
that were identified and obtained.
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